Exploring Animal Cognition, Culture & Personhood

Introduction

An area I find fascinating and underrepresented in the media and popular knowledge is that of animal cognition. In my daily life, I hear and see people discuss animals as if they are unconscious beings, incapable of thinking and feeling. This is false. In this article, I will present information illustrating many species of animals as cognitive beings which should be treated with more respect and subject to less exploitation and cruelty.

What if Animals Could Speak?

I recently saw users on Lemmy discussing “What if animals could speak?” Well, some of them can. One incredible example is Alex the African Grey parrot, purchased from an ordinary pet shop. Alex had a resounding vocabulary and is the only known example of an animal asking an existential question. Alex looked at himself in a mirror and asked researchers: “What color?” He learned that he was grey.

Not only did Alex pass the mirror self-recognition test, but this was a clear indication that this African Grey parrot comprehended its own existence as a unique entity with accompanying unique characteristics (color). But being the only animal to ask a question was not Alex’s only feat. He was able to carry out mathematics at least on parr with great ape species. [5]

Harvard University psychologist, Irene Pepperberg, was attempting to test the mathematical ability of another parrot in the same room as Alex. She played a sound of two tics but the parrot had no response. After another two tics, Alex chimed in and said “four,” followed by “six” after the next two tics. Pepperberg stated: "I just looked at him and said you want to do addition? Fine." [5]

Pepperberg also determined that Alex had comprehension of a zero-like concept. The mathematics experiments were all new concepts being tested on Alex, and Pepperberg was only able to complete one round of testing before Alex tragically died; believed to be due to hardened arteries. The last thing Alex said to Pepperberg was: "You be good. I love you. See you tomorrow." [5]

An excerpt from that Scientific American Article:

Alex and a chimpanzee named Sheba are the only non-humans that have so far been shown to represent the numerical value of a summed set, an ability once thought to depend on language. "These brains can do, if not exactly what an adult human can do, really advanced behaviour that nobody expected them to be capable of," Pepperberg says. [5]

Alex possessed complex reasoning, communication, mathematical ability, and a level of cognition that should represent personhood, in my opinion.

A remarkable area of study spanning many decades has focused on the communication carried out by elephants. Elephants are capable of communicating advanced information, including somehow communicating which humans/areas are friendly. For instance, elephants have been documented wondering great distances to receive care from elephant sanctuaries, even sometimes ones that they have never visited before, but which members of their group have come from. One such elephant is the bull elephant Tim, who has sought help from humans to treat poacher attacks on multiple occasions. [6]

Not only is the content of elephants’ communication advanced, but the means with which they communicate is far more incredible than most people realize. Elephants are capable of communicating across great distances via seismic waves, or vibrations through the ground, which they sense with their feet. [26] In addition, they are even capable of discerning whether the message is coming from a familiar source or a stranger. [26]

Recently, researchers have found what they believe to be fossilized remains of seismic elephant communication, providing further evidence to support the leading theories on elephant communication. [10] There is more to discuss on elephants’ advanced abilities, but more on that when we discuss funeral rituals within the animal kingdom.

Many people are familiar with Koko the gorilla, who learned over 1,000 expressions of modified American Sign Language. [14] Francine Patterson worked with Koko for over 43 years, teaching her sign language. Patterson claims:

I think 100 different [gestures] have been cataloged in various studies, both in free-living and zoo-dwelling gorillas. They have a pretty extensive system that may even have some cultural differences, if you look at different populations. The free-living gorillas might talk about simple things like “Where are we going to get our next meal?” but here [at the research facility] there is so much more to talk about. [14]

Koko also passed the mirror self-recognition test, as did the other gorillas in her cohort. [14] While Koko herself represents a tremendous capability in animal cognition and language ability, I find another gorilla in Patterson’s studies to be even more fascinating. Michael was orphaned when his parents were butchered in front of him by poachers. When asked of the experience:

He was using all types of new gestures to show what he saw, like “cut” and “neck.” There was another one where it looked like he was showing spots on his face, probably blood. They were nonstandard gestures. [14]

Patterson reported that Michael was traumatized by the experience. She reported that Michael had nightmares and would describe similar events to his trauma when asked to describe his dreams. Michael would also become triggered by male workers carrying out tree work, whom he would charge and scream at. [14] These symptoms are similar to what we see in humans suffering from PTSD.

Patterson reported that Michael had witnessed one of Koko’s cats kill and eat a bird that had made its way into their enclosure. Patterson stated: “As soon as he had the words ‘cat,’ ‘eat,’ ‘bird,’ and ‘bad,’ he was saying that cats eat birds and they’re bad.” [14]

This is the most fascinating part to me, because it demonstrates that Michael was making a moral value judgement. He believed cats were bad animals because he witnessed the cat kill a bird. Patterson suspected it could have been relatable to his trauma surrounding his parents. [14]

This may not seem remarkable to everyone, but it is a concrete moral judgement being articulated by another species. This is a demonstration of animals possessing the capacity for not only communication, but moral reasoning.

Moral Reasoning and Empathy in the Animal Kingdom

In discussing morality and empathy in the animal kingdom, I’d like to start with the terribly misunderstood rat. Rats are incredibly empathetic creatures who deserve more respect. In an experiment, one rat was restrained in a clear tube, and another rat would be released into the enclosure. The free rat would pull a lever to free the captive rat, and they would then explore the enclosure together. However, when the tube was empty or containing a toy rat, the free rat would pay no attention to the confinement device or lever. [25]

When the free rat was not provided access to the other rat but could still see it restrained in another enclosure, it would still attempt to free the captive rat. This demonstrates that the free rat’s drive was to free their fellow rat, not to gain a playmate or companion. They were directly motivated to free the captive fellow rat. [25]

When food was added into the equation, the free rat would pull the food and restraint release levers in no particular order, and they would share the food with the captive rat. When the restraints were empty, the sole free rat would only pull the food delivering lever and would eat all the treats. [25] This demonstrates evidence to support empathy in rats.

In another experiment, rats were trained to pull a lever that would release food. Once they developed a preference for a particular lever, the researchers changed the experiment to also deliver a mild electric shock to another rat in a subsequent enclosure. When the rats would see that their fellow rat was electrocuted, they would go without delivering the food to themselves. [12] Like humans, the experiment found that individual rats had differing capacities for empathy, and that they also had limits to their empathy, just as we do. [12]

In a series of experiments, Frans de Waal and fellow researchers have demonstrated the moral concept of inequality is present in monkeys, birds, and dogs. [23] The studies centered around training the animals to perform a task with which they were rewarded with a treat. In the famous capuchin monkey experiment, monkeys were first each presented with a cucumber as a reward for carrying out the basic task (to hand the researcher a small stone put in their enclosure).

When both monkeys received a piece of cucumber as a reward, everything went smoothly. However, when the second monkey was presented with a higher tier reward (a grape), the first monkey immediately recognized the inequal rewards and it made its feelings known. [23] Watch as the monkey expresses its frustration in its inequal treatment, and repeatedly throws the cucumber at the researcher and demands the grape:

Animals are capable of comprehending fair and unfair treatment. Inequality is a moral construct, demonstrating that animals have a capacity for moral reasoning and empathy. In addition to these findings is an incredible photo Frans de Waal captured demonstrating the fact that chimpanzees reconcile with one another following fights.

It appears offering one’s hand in trust and reconciliation is not a trait unique to humans after all.

Many species, including great apes, monkeys, dogs, and elephants engage in consolatory behavior, such as rushing to comfort and embrace a pack member who is injured or distressed. [24] One researcher who raised juvenile chimpanzees reported the only way to get her escaped chimp down from the roof of his enclosure was to sit down and pretend to cry. While food, toys, and any other means failed to persuade the chimpanzee, perceiving his caretaker to be in distress would prompt him to run down and put his arm around her to console her. [24]

Another interesting experiment that demonstrates human-like social and economic qualities was a study in which monkeys were trained to understand the concept of currency. In the beginning of the experiment, they tested altruism in the monkeys by placing monkeys in neighboring cages with a lever that would deliver food to their neighbor, and vice versa. The researchers then introduced two new behaviors in the form of one monkey trained to always pull the lever (mindless altruism) and another who was trained to never pull the lever (ego-monkey). [19]

The other monkeys would reciprocate the mindless altruist 50% of the time, but that number was reduced to 30% when the other monkeys realized that the mindless altruist was pulling the lever indiscriminately; not to deliver them food. [19] The ego-monkey was treated very harshly by the other monkeys in the experiment, who would throw their feces at the wall and sit on their hands in the corner in protest.

The researchers then introduced the concept of currency in the form of shiny metal discs, which could be used to purchase treats from the researchers. [19] While the experiment confirmed that monkeys could grasp the concept of currency, they also discovered unintentional side-effects of the introduction of currency to the monkeys.

Without any prompts from researchers, one of the monkeys in the experiment began engaging in one of humanity’s oldest professions, prostitution. The specific monkey would engage in sex acts for payment in the form of the shiny disc, which it then immediately used to purchase treats. [19]

The idea that currency is a concept only able to be understood by humans was proven false, and the monkeys’ social interactions and prostitution offered an extraordinary glimpse of what has been thought to be qualities and comprehension unique only to humans. It is also important to note that these experiments used monkeys of lower intelligence, not great ape species.

Cephalopod Intelligence

An area I find absolutely fascinating is the intelligence possessed by cephalopods (the family containing squid, octopuses, and cuttlefishes). This is such an intriguing area of study given the fact that cephalopods are invertebrates. We are able to more easily relate and understand intelligence of vertebrates, who we share much greater common ancestry and biological construct with. Cephalopods are the closest thing to an alien-like intelligence because of their starkly different anatomy.

Take the octopus’ anatomy and partially decentralized nervous system for example, in which they have 9 segmented brains, with neural pathways leading into their tentacles which can independently think, control themselves, and perceive information, such as their ability to feel and taste from their tentacles. [22]

There are about 40 million neurons in each of the octopus’ tentacles. When a detached octopus tentacle is stimulated with electricity, it continues to behave in the same patterns as a connected tentacle. [22] Some species of cephalopods appear to communicate with one another through manipulation of their pigment, flashing different colors. Advanced learning, problem-solving, [18] and even tool use has been well-documented in octopuses. [28]

The mimic octopus has been observed in nature disguising itself as other aquatic organisms, and even as rocks or algae. Watch its incredible transformative capacity and its ability to mimic the behavior of other species:

Octopuses have been documented escaping captivity, including one octopus who would repeatedly escape his tank at night to eat one of the crabs in a nearby tank, and then would return to his own tank. [20] In New Zealand, one octopus named Inky made a successful escape into the ocean, by escaping from its tank and squeezing itself down a drainpipe which led directly to the ocean. [21]

There have been multiple instances of octopuses using their jets to launch water into lights, which short circuited them and caused the power to go out. [20] In one such instance, the aquarium employees stayed over night to try to determine what was causing the power outs. However, the octopus did not use his jets to shoot water into the light while staff were present in the aquarium. When they instead setup cameras and vacated for the night, they finally captured the culprit in the act. [20]

Furthermore, tool-use has been documented in octopi, in which they have been observed collecting and manipulating coconut husks, sea shells, [11] and even human trash like glass jars and empty cans to be used as shelter. [8]

Cephalopods are cunning creatures that display advanced problem-solving capabilities and extreme intelligence for being invertebrates. In fact, they are smarter than many mammals. They can have different personalities and preferences, including in music [7] and people, whom they are capable of recognizing. [11] I can’t help but give them the benefit of the doubt, believing they are conscious beings deserving of recognition as possessing personhood.

Cultures in the Animal Kingdom

Culture is defined as: “the values, beliefs, language, rituals, traditions, and other behaviors that are passed from one generation to another within any social group…” [2] This is not limited to human behavior, and there are many instances in which specific cultural traits are present in other species.

Think back to the differences in signs/gestures that are present in captive apes vs wild ape species, where there are clear cultural differences that impact the subject matter they discuss. [14] On a more basic level, culture exists in bees in the form of foraging techniques being passed on, social learning of foraging routes in fish, and culture even exists among flies, in the form of transference of mate selection preferences. [16]

In regard to both communication and culture, Crows have been known to recognize specific people and communicate that they are a threat. In one experiment, researchers wore masks and aggravated a wild murder of crows through catching and banding them. The crows would divebomb and scold the individuals and would recognize them by their masks. [17]

Even a year after the experiment ended, wild crows that never witnessed the trappings immediately divebombed and scolded the researcher who once again donned his mask, demonstrating that crows not only recognize individual people/threats, but they can communicate those threats to other crows and they hold long-term grudges. [17]

A study on humpback whale feeding methods was able to analyze years of data to determine that a specific method of herding fish called lobtail feeding had spread through 37% of the humpback whale population. Furthermore, of the whales who incorporated this new hunting method, 87% learned it from a close observation of another whale already engaging in the technique. [3]

Animal Funeral Rituals

Funeral rituals are far from a uniquely human cultural behavior, and there are examples of animal death rituals within a wide range of species. Elephants have been repeatedly documented engaging in specific rituals in which they gather in close proximity to dead elephants (even in the presence of scavenging predators [9]), and they fall silent as they examine the corpse with their trunks and specific foot movements. Watch as these elephants mourn their dead:

       I can’t for the life of me find the article to cite here, but I remember reading about an elephant that accidentally trampled a human mother and her daughter while fleeing. It stopped its escape to grab leafy branches with its tusk to cover the bodies before continuing to flee.

       Dolphins have also been repeatedly documented engaging in funeral rituals, particularly seen guarding the bodies of dead dolphins, sometimes for days. In the multiple occurrences in which researches attempted to retrieve the dead bodies for examination, male dolphins exhibited aggressive behavior to keep researchers from disturbing the body. At least 20 dolphins were observed gathering and protecting the corpse of a sub-adult male dolphin in one such instance. [9]

       When a chimpanzee mother loses her infant, she will continue to carry out her routines and groom the baby’s corpse until it has decomposed to the point of no longer being recognizable. It is part of the chimpanzee grieving process. [9] These behaviors have been observed in other ape species as well.

       Crows, Magpies, and other corvids have their own death rituals when they lose a member of their flock, as you can see in the video below of magpies performing a funeral ritual:

Mental Illness in the Animal Kingdom

Michael the gorilla, as discussed earlier, remains a great example of mental illness in other species, and he clearly had unresolved trauma from witnessing his parents being butchered and being left orphaned. [14] He presented symptoms similar to humans suffering from PTSD.

There is genetic evidence to suggest that other mammals share our capacity for mental illness. Unlike invertebrates who possess only two, other mammals possess the four Dlg genes that humans possess, and the development of various psychological disorders can arise from mutations in those two additional Dlg genes. [4] Cognitive dysfunction has been documented in mice with mutations to their Dlg genes.

Furthermore, genetic analysis of other mammals has demonstrated that they possess the genes associated with autism and schizophrenia, and researchers believe that all animals with brains have the capacity to lose cognitive faculties. [4]

I imagine most dog owners have witnessed their dogs dream and even have nightmares. Think again back to Micheal’s traumatic nightmares. The fact that animals can dream in the same way we do should provoke people to consider that the human conscious experience may not be so far from what animals experience.

In addition to nightmares and dreaming, PTSD has been documented in canines who served in the military. [1] Additionally, it is believed that dogs are capable of suffering from autism. [1]
Anxiety and depression have been well-documented in birds, which sometimes results in their over-preening of feathers in which they essentially bald themselves, similar to a human suffering from Trichotillomania (in which they compulsively pull out their hair). [1]

Over-preening in an emotionally disturbed parot on the left, and trichotillomania on the right. (Top & bottom on mobile)

Whether it’s an orangutang in a zoo addicted to cigarettes, jaguars eating hallucinogenic roots, elephants eating hallucinogenic berries [1], or Russian bears addicted to improperly disposed of/stored aviation fuel (which they inhale to get high and pass out) [27], animals can experience addiction, just as humans can.

Horses kept in confinement to stalls can experience cribbing, in which they engage in unhealthy behaviors such as chewing and kicking the stall walls. Thin sow syndrome is behavior in which a pig will starve itself due to anxiety, and it is similar to anorexia in humans. [1]

Wild orcas have never been documented killing a human, however, this is not such a rare occurrence in captive orcas who are stressed and unhappy in their confinement and often unethical treatment/training. [1] Committing suicide is not a uniquely human act either, and it has been observed in both captive and wild animals. [1]

Are We Really So Different from Other Species?

The arrangement of bones in the human limb/hand is so remarkably similar to many other species due to our shared common ancestor, a 380-million-year-old fish. [13] I find visual representation (such as below) to be extraordinarily fascinating.

A human hand held over the remains of a whale fin.

When I consider that we share similar arrangements of bones with such a wide range of vertebrates, it makes me question how similar animal consciousness may be to that of humans. The rapid brain development in early hominid ancestors came about many millions of years after the common ancestor who so many mamals have inherrited the limb and finger structure from, with uncanny similarity.

Is it not ignorant to blanket assume that animals do not have similarly shared conscious experiences to that of humans? Is it not more reasonable to consider that animal concious experience may be more closely parrallelled to human consiousness than most typically assume?

Do Animals Possess Personhood?

When we consider that culture permeates the animal kingdom to a degree greater than most could have imagined; when we consider that animals are capable of complex reasoning tasks and mathematics; clearly display a capacity for empathy; hold funeral rituals; and are capable of experiencing trauma and mental illness like humans; is it not reasonable to give them the benefit of the doubt and treat them as conscious beings possessing personhood?

To regard animals as similarly conscious beings possessing personhood is far more reasonable than to assume that they are not capable of conscious experiences similar to humans. For any individual who disagrees with this assessment, I ask you if you consider human infants/children or those with pervasive cognitive limitations to possess personhood?

I ask this because other animals possess greater cognitive ability and social competency than this population of humans. Barring blatant speciesism, I ask how you can logically justify disregarding personhood of animals, while maintaining that a human lacking equivalent cognitive functioning can still be considered to possess personhood?

If you subscribe to the “moral personhood” stance, which dictates that personhood is possessed by beings who are moral agents, I have already illustrated that animals possess some degree of moral agency. [15]

The “metaphysical personhood” school of thought often dictates the following qualities as components that determine personhood in humans:

Rationality or logical reasoning ability
Consciousness
Self-consciousness (self-awareness)
Use of language
Ability to initiate action
Moral agency and the ability to engage in moral judgments
Intelligence [15]

It should be clear to readers from the information I have presented above that animals do experience many of these psychological and behavioral components, to varying degrees.

Conclusion

Animals are conscious creatures possessing unique cultures and they experience self-awareness, mental illness, possess advanced reasoning/mathematical abilities, and they deserve to be recognized as possessing personhood. Animals should not be subject to the exploitation and cruelty we try to justify by lying to ourselves and believing they are not conscious beings deserving of respect and kindness.

Whether you subscribe to the moral personhood or metaphysical personhood perspectives, other species of animals still fall into this categorization and should be considered to possess personhood. There is still so much more to discover in regard to animal intelligence, but new discoveries continue to demonstrate that we have historically and categorically underestimated the intelligence, moral and empathetic capacity, cultures, and personhood present in many different species of animals.

It reasonably follows that we ought to give animals the benefit of the doubt, and we should feel morally compelled to treat them with greater respect, dignity, and admiration, while working to eliminate our exploitative and cruel practices that we erroneously justify through ignorance and speciesism.

References

[1] 15 things to know about mental disorders in animals. Online Psychology Degree Guide. (2021, November 12). https://www.onlinepsychologydegree.info/lists/information-mental-disorders-in-animals/

[2] American Psychological Association. (2023, November 15). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/culture

[3] Balter, M. (2013, April 25). Strongest evidence of animal culture seen in monkeys and whales - AAAS. Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/strongest-evidence-animal-culture-seen-monkeys-and-whales

[4] Bekoff, M. (2015, September 9). Psychological disorders in animals: A review of what we know. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/animal-emotions/201509/psychological-disorders-in-animals-review-what-we-know

[5] Callaway, E. (2014, May 2). Alex the Parrot’s posthumous paper shows his mathematical genius. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/alex-parrot-posthumous-paper-mathematical-genius/

[6] Crilly, R. (2016, July 2). Tim the Kenyan elephant seeks out human help after being hurt by spear. The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/02/tim-the-kenyan-elephant-seeks-out-human-help-after-being-hurt-by/

[7] Dorn, L. (2020, February 1). How octopuses react to different kinds of music. Laughing Squid. https://laughingsquid.com/how-octopuses-react-to-music/

[8] Gamillo, E. (2022, March 15). Octopuses are reusing human trash as shelter. Smithsonian.com. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/octopuses-are-reusing-our-trash-as-shelter-180979731/

[9] Goldman, J. G. (2022, February 24). Death rituals in the Animal Kingdom. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20120919-respect-the-dead

[10] Helm Research Associate, C. (2023, December 26). Unusual ancient elephant tracks had our team of fossil experts stumped – how we solved the mystery. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/unusual-ancient-elephant-tracks-had-our-team-of-fossil-experts-stumped-how-we-solved-the-mystery-216548

[11] Hendry, L. (n.d.). Octopuses keep surprising US - here are eight examples how. Natural History Museum. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/octopuses-keep-surprising-us-here-are-eight-examples-how.html

[12] Langley, L. (2021, May 4). Rats avoid harming other rats. the finding may help us understand sociopaths. Animals. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/rats-empathy-brains-harm-aversion

[13] Long, J. A., & Cloutier, R. (2020, July 24). How a 380-million-year-old fish gave us fingers. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-a-380-million-year-old-fish-gave-us-fingers/

[14] Morin, R. (2015, August 28). What gorillas can teach us about being human. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/08/koko-the-talking-gorilla-sign-language-francine-patterson/402307/

[15] MU School of Medicine. (n.d.). Concept of personhood. Concept of Personhood. https://medicine.missouri.edu/centers-institutes-labs/health-ethics/faq/personhood

[16] Page, M. L. (2021, April 7). Animal culture is so common that even fish and flies have it. New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2273450-animal-culture-is-so-common-that-even-fish-and-flies-have-it/

[17] Pappas, S. (2011a, June 28). Hitchcockian crows spread the word about unkind humans. LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/14819-crows-learn-dangerous-faces.html

[18] Parsons, L. (2023, November 9). Harvard study looks at how cephalopods develop their big brains. Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2022/11/harvard-study-looks-at-how-cephalopods-develop-their-big-brains/

[19] Puiu, T. (2023, December 15). How scientists taught monkeys the concept of money. not long after, the first prostitute monkey appeared. ZME Science. https://www.zmescience.com/research/how-scientists-tught-monkeys-the-concept-of-money-not-long-after-the-first-prostitute-monkey-appeared/

[20] Scarr, C. (2021, September 29). Octopus escapades - mishpacha magazine. Mishpacha Magazine. https://mishpacha.com/octopus-escapades/

[21] Sheikh, K. (2016, April 15). Master of escapes: How an octopus broke out of its aquarium. LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/54427-how-octopus-escapes-new-zealand-aquarium.html

[22] Stephen, M. (2023, January 13). University of Notre Dame. Biomechanics in the Wild. https://sites.nd.edu/biomechanics-in-the-wild/2021/04/07/nine-brains-are-better-than-one-an-octopus-nervous-system/

[23] Waal, F. de. (2011, November). Moral behavior in animals. Frans de Waal: Moral behavior in animals. https://www.ted.com/talks/frans_de_waal_moral_behavior_in_animals

[24] Waal, F. de. (2023, March 29). Evidence implies that animals feel empathy. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/evidence-implies-that-animals-feel-empathy/

[25] Wein, H. (2015, July 2). Rats show empathy, too. National Institutes of Health. https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/rats-show-empathy-too

[26] White, T. (2007, May 29). Caller ID in the wild: African elephants communicate by ground vibration, Stanford researcher finds. News Center. https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2007/05/caller-id-in-the-wild-african-elephants-communicate-by-ground-vibration-stanford-researcher-finds.html

[27] Reporter, S. (2013, March 18). “junkie” bears getting high after smelling fumes of aircraft fuel in Russia. International Business Times UK. https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/bear-high-airplane-fuel-junkie-kronotsky-animal-447308

[28] Finn, J. K. (2009, December 16). Defensive tool use in a coconut-carrying octopus. Current Biology. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209019149

*As is tradition (apparently..), the last two sources are out of order because I was too lazy to reformat all of the existing citations' in-text counterparts...

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